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# Useful Libraries¶

## Overview¶

While Julia lacks the massive scientific ecosystem of Python, it has successfully attracted a small army of enthusiastic and talented developers

As a result, its package system is moving towards a critical mass of useful, well written libraries

In addition, a major advantage of Julia libraries is that, because Julia itself is sufficiently fast, there is less need to mix in low level languages like C and Fortran

As a result, most Julia libraries are written exclusively in Julia

Not only does this make the libraries more portable, it makes them much easier to dive into, read, learn from and modify

In this lecture we introduce a few of the Julia libraries that we’ve found particularly useful for quantitative work in economics

Credits: Thanks to @cc7768, @vgregory757 and @spencerlyon2 for keeping us up to date with current best practice

## Distributions¶

Functions for manipulating probability distributions and generating random variables are supplied by the excellent Distributions.jl package

We’ll restrict ourselves to a few simple examples (the package itself has detailed documentation)

• d = Normal(m, s) creates a normal distribution with mean $$m$$ and standard deviation $$s$$

• defaults are m = 0 and s = 1
• d = Uniform(a, b) creates a uniform distribution on interval $$[a, b]$$

• defaults are a = 0 and b = 1
• d = Binomial(n, p) creates a binomial over $$n$$ trials with success probability $$p$$

• defaults are n = 1 and p = 0.5

Distributions.jl defines various methods for acting on these instances in order to obtain

• random draws
• evaluations of pdfs (densities), cdfs (distribution functions), quantiles, etc.
• mean, variance, kurtosis, etc.

For example,

• To generate k draws from the instance d use rand(d, k)
• To obtain the mean of the distribution use mean(d)
• To evaluate the probability density function of d at x use pdf(d, x)

Further details on the interface can be found here

Several multivariate distributions are also implemented

## Working with Data¶

A useful package for working with data is DataFrames

The most important data type provided is a DataFrame, a two dimensional array for storing heterogeneous data

Although data can be heterogeneous within a DataFrame, the contents of the columns must be homogeneous

This is analogous to a data.frame in R, a DataFrame in Pandas (Python) or, more loosely, a spreadsheet in Excel

The DataFrames package also supplies a DataArray type, which is like a one dimensional DataFrame

In terms of working with data, the advantage of a DataArray over a standard numerical array is that it can handle missing values

Here’s an example

using DataFrames

commodities = ["crude", "gas", "gold", "silver"]

4-element Array{String,1}:
"crude"
"gas"
"gold"
"silver"

last_price = @data([4.2, 11.3, 12.1, NA])  # Create DataArray

4-element DataArrays.DataArray{Float64,1}:
4.2
11.3
12.1
NA

df = DataFrame(commod=commodities, price=last_price)

4×2 DataFrames.DataFrame
│ Row │ commod   │ price │
├─────┼──────────┼───────┤
│ 1   │ "crude"  │ 4.2   │
│ 2   │ "gas"    │ 11.3  │
│ 3   │ "gold"   │ 12.1  │
│ 4   │ "silver" │ NA    │


Columns of the DataFrame can be accessed by name

df[:price]

4-element DataArrays.DataArray{Float64,1}:
4.2
11.3
12.1
NA

df[:commod]

4-element DataArrays.DataArray{String,1}:
"crude"
"gas"
"gold"
"silver"


The DataFrames package provides a number of methods for acting on DataFrames

A simple one is describe()

describe(df)

commod
Length  4
Type    String
NAs     0
NA%     0.0%
Unique  4

price
Min      4.2
1st Qu.  7.75
Median   11.3
Mean     9.200000000000001
3rd Qu.  11.7
Max      12.1
NAs      1
NA%      25.0%


There are also functions for splitting, merging and other data munging operations

Data can be read from and written to CSV files using syntax df = readtable("data_file.csv") and writetable("data_file.csv", df) respectively

Other packages for working with data can be found at JuliaStats and JuliaQuant

## Interpolation¶

In economics we often wish to interpolate discrete data (i.e., build continuous functions that join discrete sequences of points)

We also need such representations to be fast and efficient

The package we usually turn to for this purpose is Interpolations.jl

One downside of Interpolations.jl is that the code to set up simple interpolation objects is relatively verbose

The upside is that the routines have excellent performance

The package is also well written and well maintained

Another alternative, if using univariate linear interpolation, is LinInterp from QuantEcon.jl

As we show below, the syntax for this function is much simpler

### Univariate Interpolation¶

We begin by creating some data points, using a sine function

using Interpolations
using Plots
plotlyjs()

x = -7:7             # x points, coase grid
y = sin.(x)          # corresponding y points

xf = -7:0.1:7        # fine grid
plot(xf, sin.(xf), label="sine function")
scatter!(x, y, label="sampled data", markersize=4)


Here’s the resulting figure

We can implement linear interpolation easily using QuantEcon’s LinInterp

using QuantEcon

li = LinInterp(x, y)        # create LinInterp object
li(0.3)                     # evaluate at a single point
y_linear_qe = li.(xf)       # evaluate at multiple points

plot(xf, y_linear_qe, label="linear")
scatter!(x, y, label="sampled data", markersize=4)


Here’s the result

The syntax is simple and the code is efficient, but for other forms of interpolation we need a more sophisticated set of routines

As an example, let’s employ Interpolations.jl to interpolate the sampled data points using piecewise constant, piecewise linear and cubic interpolation

itp_const = scale(interpolate(y, BSpline(Constant()), OnGrid()), x)
itp_linear = scale(interpolate(y, BSpline(Linear()), OnGrid()), x)
itp_cubic = scale(interpolate(y, BSpline(Cubic(Line())), OnGrid()), x)


When we want to evaluate them at points in their domain (i.e., between min(x) and max(x)) we can do so as follows

itp_cubic[0.3]

0.29400097760820687


Note the use of square brackets, rather than parentheses!

Let’s plot these objects created above

xf = -7:0.1:7
y_const = [itp_const[x] for x in xf]
y_linear = [itp_linear[x] for x in xf]
y_cubic = [itp_cubic[x] for x in xf]

plot(xf, [y_const y_linear y_cubic], label=["constant" "linear" "cubic"])
scatter!(x, y, label="sampled data", markersize=4)


Here’s the figure we obtain

### Univariate with Irregular Grid¶

The LinInterp from QuantEcon.jl works the same whether or not the grid is regular (i.e., evenly spaced)

The Interpolations.jl code is a bit more picky

Here’s an example of the latter with an irregular grid

x = log.(linspace(1, exp(4), 10)) + 1  # Uneven grid
y = log.(x)                            # Corresponding y points

itp_const = interpolate((x, ), y, Gridded(Constant()))
itp_linear = interpolate((x, ), y, Gridded(Linear()))

xf = log.(linspace(1, exp(4), 100)) + 1
y_const = [itp_const[x] for x in xf]
y_linear = [itp_linear[x] for x in xf]
y_true = [log(x) for x in xf]

labels = ["piecewise constant" "linear" "true function"]
plot(xf, [y_const y_linear y_true], label=labels)
scatter!(x, y, label="sampled data", markersize=4, size=(800, 400))


The figure looks as follows

### Multivariate Interpolation¶

We can also interpolate in higher dimensions

The following example gives one illustration

n = 5
x = linspace(-3, 3, n)
y = copy(x)

z = Array{Float64}(n, n)
f(x, y) = cos(x^2 + y^2) / (1 + x^2 + y^2)
for i in 1:n
for j in 1:n
z[j, i] = f(x[i], y[j])
end
end

itp = interpolate((x, y), z, Gridded(Linear()));

nf = 50
xf = linspace(-3, 3, nf)
yf = copy(xf)

zf = Array{Float64}(nf, nf)
ztrue = Array{Float64}(nf, nf)
for i in 1:nf
for j in 1:nf
zf[j, i] = itp[xf[i], yf[j]]
ztrue[j, i] = f(xf[i], yf[j])
end
end

grid = gridmake(x, y)
z = reshape(z, n * n, 1)

pyplot()
surface(xf, yf, zf', color=:greens, falpha=0.7, cbar=false)
surface!(xf, yf, ztrue', fcolor=:blues, falpha=0.25, cbar=false)
scatter!(grid[:, 1], grid[:, 2], vec(z), legend=:none, color=:black, markersize=4)


This code produces the following figure

The original function is in blue, while the linear interpolant is shown in green

## Optimization, Roots and Fixed Points¶

Let’s look briefly at the optimization and root finding algorithms

### Roots¶

A root of a real function $$f$$ on $$[a,b]$$ is an $$x \in [a, b]$$ such that $$f(x)=0$$

For example, if we plot the function

(1)$f(x) = \sin(4 (x - 1/4)) + x + x^{20} - 1$

with $$x \in [0,1]$$ we get

The unique root is approximately 0.408

One common root-finding algorithm is the Newton-Raphson method

This is implemented as newton() in the Roots package and is called with the function and an initial guess

using Roots

f(x) = sin(4 * (x - 1/4)) + x + x^20 - 1

newton(f, 0.2)

0.40829350427936706


The Newton-Raphson method uses local slope information, which can lead to failure of convergence for some initial conditions

newton(f, 0.7)

-1.0022469256696986


For this reason most modern solvers use more robust “hybrid methods”, as does Roots’s fzero() function

fzero(f, 0, 1)

0.40829350427936706


### Optimization¶

For constrained, univariate minimization a useful option is optimize() from the Optim package

This function defaults to a robust hybrid optimization routine called Brent’s method

using Optim

optimize(x -> x^2, -1.0, 1.0)

Results of Optimization Algorithm
* Algorithm: Brent's Method
* Search Interval: [-1.000000, 1.000000]
* Minimizer: -2.775558e-17
* Minimum: 7.703720e-34
* Iterations: 5
* Convergence: max(|x - x_upper|, |x - x_lower|) <= 2*(1.5e-08*|x|+2.2e-16): true
* Objective Function Calls: 6


For other optimization routines, including least squares and multivariate optimization, see the documentation

A number of alternative packages for optimization can be found at JuliaOpt

## Other Topics¶

### Numerical Integration¶

The QuadGK library contains a function called quadgk() that performs Gaussian quadrature

import QuadGK.quadgk

(-1.5474478810961125e-14,5.7846097329025695e-24)


This is an adaptive Gauss-Kronrod integration technique that’s relatively accurate for smooth functions

However, its adaptive implementation makes it slow and not well suited to inner loops

For this kind of integration you can use the quadrature routines from QuantEcon

nodes, weights = qnwlege(65, -2pi, 2pi);
integral = do_quad(x -> cos.(x), nodes, weights)

-3.0062757838678067e-15


Let’s time the two implementations

@time quadgk(x -> cos.(x), -2pi, 2pi)
@time do_quad(x -> cos.(x), nodes, weights)

0.800730 seconds (591.95 k allocations: 16.933 MB)
0.008481 seconds (573 allocations: 33.076 KB)


We get similar accuracy with a speed up factor approaching three orders of magnitude

More numerical integration (and differentiation) routines can be found in the package Calculus

### Linear Algebra¶

The standard library contains many useful routines for linear algebra, in addition to standard functions such as det(), inv(), eye(), etc.

Routines are available for

• Cholesky factorization
• LU decomposition
• Singular value decomposition,
• Schur factorization, etc.

See here for further details